Branding the city through the tourist gaze: evidence from Jaffna, Sri Lanka - Frontiers

Front. Sustain. Tour. , 29 June 2026

Volume 5 - 2026 | https://doi.org/10.3389/frsut.2026.1843926

Reciprocal Gaze: Host-Guest Encounters, Gendered Perspectives, and the Politics of Seeing in Tourism

Summary of the stakeholder feedback.

1. Department of Economics, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka

2. Department of Mathematics, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka

3. Department of Economics, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka

This study examines how tourist gaze theory can contribute to the development of effective city branding strategies taking the city of Jaffna, Sri Lanka as a case study. By examining how tourists perceive and visually engage with the city's landscape, cultural symbols, and heritage sites, the study identifies the dominant gazes shaping visitor experiences. Then the ways these gazes can effectively be used to create a successful branding and promotional campaign to make Jaffna a distinctive urban tourism destination are analyzed. The study follows qualitative approaches with a cross-sectional design and inductive procedures. Primary data collection is based on extracting information from tourists, professionals, business leaders, officials, and other stakeholders, chosen through “purposive” sampling, connected to the industry through in-depth interviews and focus groups. Secondary data is collected from numerous journal articles and other accepted material that have been published in the past. Case studies are also used to highlight the strategies that have been used by a few cities around the world. By integrating insights from tourist gaze theory with city branding research, this study aims to contribute both to tourism theory and to practical destination development strategies. The research identifies the dominant forms of tourist gaze shaping visitor perceptions of the destination, including cultural, religious, environmental, and historical gazes. The findings reveal that tourism in Jaffna is structured around multiple and evolving gazes, reflecting the city's unique cultural identity, heritage assets, and post-conflict transformation. However, significant challenges related to infrastructure, accessibility, governance, and market positioning limit the city's ability to fully capitalize on these assets. The study argues that effective city branding requires aligning branding strategies with the elements that attract and sustain the tourist gaze, while ensuring that the destination experience matches the projected image. By integrating tourist gaze theory with city branding, this research contributes to both tourism theory and practice, offering insights for developing sustainable and culturally grounded branding strategies in emerging tourism destinations.

Tourism has become an increasingly important strategy for regional economic development, particularly for cities seeking to revitalize their economies and attract global attention. In this context, city branding has emerged as a key policy tool for positioning destinations in a competitive global tourism market. Cities across the world have adopted branding strategies that highlight unique cultural, historical, and environmental characteristics in order to attract tourists, investors, and new residents. However, the effectiveness of such branding strategies depends largely on how destinations are perceived and interpreted by visitors.

One influential theoretical framework that helps explain how tourists interpret destinations is the concept of the tourist gaze, first introduced by John Urry in The Tourist Gaze (1990). According to this theory, tourists experience destinations primarily through visual and symbolic interpretations shaped by cultural expectations, media representations, and tourism marketing. The tourist gaze directs attention toward landscapes, cultural practices, and urban environments that appear extraordinary or different from everyday life. Because these expectations influence how tourists interpret places, tourism planners and marketers often design tourism products and promotional campaigns to align with these anticipated visual experiences.

Understanding the tourist gaze is therefore particularly important for cities attempting to develop distinctive tourism identities. By identifying the elements that attract the tourist gaze such as heritage sites, cultural landscapes, or unique urban environments, cities can design branding strategies that reinforce these symbolic attractions. In this sense, city branding is not merely a marketing exercise but a broader process of shaping how a destination is seen, experienced, and remembered by visitors. The tourist gaze concept emphasizes that tourism is fundamentally a socially organized way of looking at places, where tourists selectively focus on specific landscapes, cultural symbols, and experiences that have been framed as meaningful or desirable. In this sense, tourism marketing and destination promotion play an important role in directing the gaze of visitors by highlighting particular attractions and narratives while often downplaying others. Consequently, the relationship between tourism branding and the tourist gaze becomes an important area of inquiry, particularly for emerging destinations seeking to establish a distinctive identity.

City branding strategies increasingly rely on visual imagery, storytelling, and symbolic representations to influence how tourists perceive urban destinations. Tourism scholars argue that tourism itself can be understood as a “way of seeing,” where destinations are staged and interpreted through visual experiences. Understanding how tourists gaze upon cities can therefore provide valuable insights for developing effective branding strategies that align with visitor expectations and experiences. Despite the growing interest in city branding, relatively little research has explored how tourist gaze theory can inform the development of urban tourism branding strategies, particularly in emerging destinations. This gap is especially relevant for cities undergoing post-conflict or transitional development, where tourism is often seen as a tool for economic rejuvenation and international re-imaging.

Jaffna, located in the northern region of Sri Lanka, provides a compelling context for examining this relationship. Following the end of Sri Lanka's civil conflict, Jaffna has emerged as a destination with distinctive cultural, historical, and religious significance. Yet the city's tourism potential remains underdeveloped compared to other regions of the country. By examining how key stakeholders perceive the city's tourism identity and by analyzing these perceptions through the lens of tourist gaze theory, this study aims to identify branding strategies that could enhance Jaffna's position as a unique cultural tourism destination.

The competition among cities for attention, investment, and recognition has never been more intense than what we experience in today's increasingly interconnected geography. Each city with its unique history, culture, and character tries to promote the art and science of its identity with the intention of making a long-lasting impression on the visitors. In our ever-changing world, a city's brand is its strength that tells the story of its self-glory, evokes emotions, and ignites aspirations. Brand managers have to find answers to two fundamental questions: What are the unique characteristics of our city? How can we convey that uniqueness to the world? Beyond practical strategies and techniques of branding a city, the study will investigate the collective spirit of the tourists and the people who call Jaffna home, the stories that echo through its streets, and the dreams that take flight from its vantage points, all of which can be made to be the intangible essence that makes a city more than just a geographical location.

The aim of this study is to examine how tourist gaze theory can inform city branding strategies by analyzing the ways tourists perceive and visually interpret the cultural, historical, and environmental attractions of Jaffna, Sri Lanka.

2.1 To identify the key attractions and cultural elements that shape the tourist gaze in Jaffna.

2.2 To analyze stakeholder perceptions of Jaffna's tourism identity and branding opportunities.

2.3 To comparatively examine how tourist gaze elements are incorporated into city branding strategies in selected international destinations in order to develop a contextual branding framework for Jaffna.

This study adopts a qualitative comparison-based case study approach to examine how tourist gaze theory can inform city branding strategies in emerging tourism destinations, with particular focus on Jaffna. A qualitative design was considered appropriate because the research seeks to understand how tourism stakeholders interpret the visual, cultural, and symbolic elements that shape visitor experiences and how such elements can be translated into destination branding strategies. The primary focus is on Jaffna as the central empirical case while incorporating selected international city branding cases for analytical comparison. In line with the comparison-based case study approach proposed by Cihangir and Seremet (2022 ), the comparative dimension is not intended to produce statistical generalization but to support theoretical development through contextual comparison and pattern identification. The comparative cases therefore function as secondary analytical cases that help interpret and refine the relationship between tourist gaze and city branding within the Jaffna context.

Primary data were collected through semi-structured interviews based on a discussion guide with key stakeholders connected to tourism development in Jaffna. These stakeholders included representatives from local government institutions, tourism development authorities, academics, tourism professionals, and business organizations involved in the tourism sector. Purposive sampling was used to select participants possessing contextual knowledge of tourism development and destination identity formation in Jaffna. In addition to the primary case, secondary case materials relating to the branding strategies of cities such as Milwaukee, Hamburg, Edmonton, and Izmir were examined. These cases were selected purposively because they represent different approaches to place branding, stakeholder engagement, cultural positioning, and tourism-led urban identity construction. The purpose of including these cases was to identify recurring branding mechanisms and compare how different cities strategically mobilize cultural narratives, heritage assets, symbolic imagery, and stakeholder participation to shape destination perception.

The interview data and comparative case materials were analyzed using thematic analysis. The analysis proceeded in three stages. First, themes relating to attractions, cultural symbols, landscapes, historical narratives, and tourism experiences were identified within the Jaffna case. Second, these themes were interpreted through the conceptual lens of tourist gaze theory to identify dominant forms of gaze associated with the destination, including cultural, religious, environmental, and historical gazes. Third, the findings from Jaffna were analytically compared with the selected international cases in order to identify similarities and differences in branding approaches, stakeholder engagement, and the strategic construction of destination imagery.

Traditionally, destinations have been understood as geographically defined spaces such as cities, regions, islands, or countries that offer combinations of tourism products and experiences to visitors. However, under conditions of globalization and increasing inter-urban competition, cities have increasingly adopted branding strategies to attract tourists, investments, businesses, skilled labor, and international attention. In this context, cities are no longer viewed merely as physical locations but as symbolic and experiential products competing within a global marketplace.

City branding therefore refers to the strategic process through which cities construct and communicate distinctive identities aimed at shaping favorable perceptions among target audiences. Branding strategies often emphasize cultural heritage, architecture, lifestyle, history, and local identity in order to create memorable destination images. Cities such as Paris, New York City, and Barcelona have successfully developed globally recognizable identities associated with romance, cosmopolitanism, and culture respectively.

Nevertheless, scholars increasingly argue that city branding cannot be understood purely as a marketing exercise. Kavaratzis and Kalandides (2015 ) emphasize that place brands are socially constructed through interactions among residents, institutions, visitors, and urban experiences rather than through promotional campaigns alone. Similarly, Lucarelli and Olof Berg (2011 ) criticize the overreliance on conventional marketing theories in city branding studies, arguing that branding processes are deeply connected to social, cultural, and political dimensions of urban life.

These critiques suggest that understanding city branding requires greater attention to how tourists visually and symbolically experience urban spaces. This has encouraged tourism scholars to engage with sociological theories that explain how destinations are perceived, interpreted, and consumed. One of the most influential frameworks in this regard is the concept of the tourist gaze.

The concept of the tourist gaze was introduced by John Urry in The Tourist Gaze (1990), where tourism was conceptualized as a socially organized form of visual consumption. According to Urry, tourists do not simply observe destinations objectively; rather, their expectations, perceptions, and experiences are shaped through socially constructed images, symbols, media representations, and cultural discourses. Tourism experiences are therefore selective and organized around particular ways of seeing.

Tourist gaze theory argues that destinations are consumed visually through symbolic markers that distinguish certain landscapes, cultural practices, and attractions as worthy of attention. Media, advertising, photography, films, and digital platforms all contribute to directing tourists' attention toward specific aspects of a destination while marginalizing others. Consequently, tourism spaces are socially constructed through representation as much as through physical reality.

The theoretical foundations of the tourist gaze are closely associated with the work of Michel Foucault, particularly his arguments linking visibility, knowledge, and power. From this perspective, the gaze is not neutral; it reflects broader power relations that influence how places and people are represented, categorized, and consumed. Contemporary tourism studies have extended this perspective by examining how gazes are fragmented and shaped by factors such as culture, politics, technology, gender, and postcolonial identities.

Recent studies further demonstrate that tourism spaces can become contested landscapes where different stakeholders negotiate meanings and identities. For example, Seremet et al. (2022 ) argue that city branding processes may simultaneously construct and deconstruct urban identities through institutional and political dynamics. Similarly ( Lucarelli and Olof Berg, 2011 ) show how tourism landscapes are shaped through competing gazes and contested representations within tourism spaces.

These perspectives are particularly relevant to emerging and post-conflict destinations such as Jaffna, where tourism representations are intertwined with history, identity, memory, and political transformation ( Phua and Seremet, 2025 ).

Although city branding and tourist gaze theory emerged from different academic traditions, both perspectives are fundamentally concerned with the construction of destination images and tourism experiences. City branding seeks to strategically shape how cities are perceived, while tourist gaze theory explains how those perceptions are socially produced, circulated, and consumed.

This study argues that tourist gaze theory provides an important conceptual lens for understanding the deeper cultural and symbolic processes underlying city branding. Rather than viewing branding merely as a promotional strategy, tourist gaze theory highlights how branding selectively frames urban spaces, directs tourist attention, and constructs desirable destination narratives. In this sense, branding can be understood as an institutional attempt to organize and manage the tourist gaze.

The integration of these perspectives is particularly important because tourism marketing does not simply promote destinations; it actively shapes what tourists expect to see, experience, and remember. Images of heritage, culture, religion, nature, and post-conflict transformation become symbolic elements through which cities attempt to position themselves within global tourism markets. Consequently, tourists engage not only with physical places but also with socially constructed representations of those places.

In the context of Jaffna, the tourist gaze becomes especially relevant because the city's identity is influenced by multiple and sometimes competing narratives, including post-war recovery, Tamil cultural heritage, religious tourism, island landscapes, and reconciliation. Different stakeholders attempt to emphasize different dimensions of the city in order to attract particular tourism markets. Therefore, understanding how Jaffna is visually and symbolically constructed through tourism narratives is essential for evaluating its branding potential.

This study therefore uses tourist gaze theory not simply as a descriptive tourism concept, but as a theoretical framework that explains how city branding operates through visual representation, symbolic meaning, and selective destination construction.

Destination branding goes beyond the collective perceptions of individuals about a particular place, whether formed through personal experience, word of mouth, or preconceived notions, which significantly influence their emotional attitudes toward that destination ( Buncle, 2003 ). Defining the destination's identity and its fundamental values in a manner that will be embraced universally and could easily be promoted has become a significant challenge in city branding. In this context, traditional product branding strategies may prove less suitable for destinations due to the complexities involved in ownership, stakeholder engagement, and the intricate development of the brand ( Kavaratzis, 2009 ). The two primary concerns within a destination branding process are the abilities of the brand: a. to serve as a vehicle to express urban identity, b. to be a tool of enhancing competitive capabilities of the place. The concepts of “territorial competitiveness” and “powerful urban identities” are not contradictory; instead, recognizing their potential synergies can create opportunities for sustainable development. Places trying to attract tourists, investment, consumers, skilled labor, students, and various economically viable events not only have to compete with their local neighbors but also with places situated far across the globe due to the process of accelerated globalization.

On the other hand, the theoretical foundation of the “tourist gaze” can be linked to “Foucauldian” perspectives on power and observation. This perception associates the act of looking at an object or a place with “control,” “interpretation,” and “knowledge production.” Tourists do not simply observe destinations; they interpret them through pre-existing frames of reference predominantly reflecting cultural narratives.

There are several theories supporting branding concepts, such as:

Kavaratzis (2004 ) introduces a three-tiered framework in understanding city branding better. The first consists of tangible and visible attributes through which a city is perceived while promotional strategies used by the city and communication of individuals and media outlets about the city reflecting public discourse and perceptions come in as the second and the third tiers respectively.

In a process of branding a destination, it is crucial to recognize historical significance, architectural heritage, economic landscape, product offerings, and cultural vibrancy as well as all the stakeholders including religious, social, political, and entrepreneurial groups, investors, permanent and temporary residents and visitors ( Shirvani Dastgerdi and De Luca, 2019 ).

Though the fundamental principles of destination branding originated from the branding strategies employed by product brands the stakeholder landscape of destination branding is much larger than that of product brands ( Hankinson, 2007 ; Konecnik and Go, 2008 ). One of the biggest challenges in destination branding lies in incorporating all influential stakeholders into both the development and implementation phases of the process. Buhalis (2001 ) establishes that the six primary stakeholder groups to be included are: tourists and tourism sector, local populace, government and public sector entities having jurisdiction over the area, local business community including small and medium-sized tourism enterprises and tour operators, religious leaders of all religions being practiced in the area, and civil society organizations focusing mainly on the environmental and cultural aspects and sustainability of economic development in the area. In essence, destination branding necessitates “the coordinated use of marketing tools supported by a shared customer-oriented philosophy, for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging urban offerings that have value for the city's customers and the city's community at large” ( Braun, 2008 , 2012 ).

In addition to such theories, structured approaches such as Strategic Place Brand Management Model (SPBM) emphasize the importance of engaging stakeholders throughout the process. It begins with a thorough analysis of the place's context, including its history, culture, geography, economic drivers, competitive landscape, and stakeholder dynamics ( Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005 ). The next step is to define a clear vision and positioning for the brand by identifying the place's unique selling proposition and value proposition as well as its desired image and positioning in the minds of target audiences ( Anholt, 2007 ). Brand managers are now ready to engage the stakeholders, including residents, businesses, government agencies, and community organizations to ensure the collaboration and support of all stakeholders ( Govers and Go, 2009 ). Then the SPBM model will guide the brand managers to develop a comprehensive brand strategy for the place based on the vision and stakeholder input. The model emphasizes effective implementation of the strategy across various touch-points such as marketing campaigns, events, infrastructure projects, and policies. It also advocates for ongoing evaluation and adaptation of the strategy based on performance metrics, stakeholder feedback, market trends, and changes in the place's context, facilitating continuous improvement and optimization of the brand over time ( Zenker et al., 2017 ).

The concept of the tourist gaze was introduced by sociologist John Urry in his seminal book The Tourist Gaze (1990). The theory has since become one of the most widely cited frameworks in tourism studies. Urry argued that tourism is fundamentally organized around particular ways of seeing places, people, and landscapes. Tourism experiences are largely structured by visual consumption. Tourists do not simply encounter destinations randomly; rather, their attention is directed toward specific landscapes, cultural symbols, and attractions that have already been framed as meaningful through tourism promotion, media representations, and cultural narratives. Urry emphasized that the tourist gaze is socially organized and historically constructed rather than purely individual or spontaneous. The way tourists view destinations is influenced by social norms, cultural expectations, and symbolic markers that signal what is worth seeing. As a result, tourism can be understood as a “way of seeing” in which visitors interpret landscapes and cultural environments through socially learned patterns of observation. Foucauldian Power Theory ( Foucault, 1977 ), argues that power and knowledge are inseparable as they directly imply one another. The act of seeing is not neutral but embedded within systems of control and interpretation. Visibility becomes a mechanism of power where individuals regulate their behavior under the possibility of constant observation. This suggests that the tourist gaze functions as a form of power, shaping how destinations and local communities are represented, interpreted, and experienced. Therefore, tourism involves not only visual consumption but also complex power relations between those who gaze and those who are gazed upon. Urry and Larsen (2011 ), in their Performance Theory, suggest that tourism is not just people visiting a place and seeing things at that place but also interacting, participating, and even performing where tourists become active co-creators of the experience rather than being passive observers. Though Urry (1990 , 1995 ) suggested that places are consumed, both literally (through consumption of products and services) and symbolically (being attached to the place) with the assumption that the symbolic consumption is mainly through observation evolution of the industry together with knowledge production through two decades guided Urry and Larsen (2011 ), to conclude that each gaze depends upon practices and material relations as upon discourses and signs. Places are brought into being through systems of organized and/or informal performances of tourist as well as the host.

Although the concept of the tourist gaze originates from Michel Foucault's discourse on power, it has since evolved into a multidimensional framework incorporating insights from disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, technology studies, gender studies, environmental studies, and the sciences, giving rise to the concept of Multiplicity of Gaze Theory.

Samarathunga (2021 ) suggests that the tourist gaze can be applied across diverse contexts, producing varying interpretations and outcomes. Consequently, the way tourists perceive and interpret destinations differs according to demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and education, as well as broader socio-cultural factors including political, economic, and geographical contexts. Empirical applications of the tourist gaze have extended into areas such as city planning, destination branding, and tourism product development. Furthermore, contemporary research highlights that the tourist gaze is no longer a singular phenomenon but consists of multiple forms, including the mutual gaze, host gaze, local gaze, reverse gaze, and intra-tourist gaze, which interact within the broader tourism experience. Urry (1990 ), described that tourists are expected to be able to visually consume extraordinary places and landscapes and such experiences were circulated primarily in the form of postcards, photographs, travel guides, and television shows. Tourists were tireless collectors of signs which were familiar to them. With the digital revolution and globalization, researchers in the 21 st century concluded that tourism experiences are influenced by preexisting images seen before travel. Tourist gaze is fundamentally shaped by photography (both analog and digital forms of it), print and electronic media as well as by social media postings, as stated in Mediated/Digital Gaze Theory.

In addition, tourism experiences are strongly influenced by prior exposure to images of destinations. Travel brochures, advertising campaigns, films, television programs, and social media platforms often create mental images of places before tourists arrive. These images shape expectations and guide tourists toward particular sights that match the representations they have previously encountered. The tourist gaze is therefore closely connected to the role of tourism marketing and destination branding. Promotional materials not only attract visitors but also construct interpretive frameworks that determine how places are experienced visually.

Despite the growing importance of city branding in tourism development, relatively few studies have explored how tourist gaze theory can inform branding strategies for emerging urban destinations. Much of the existing literature focuses on well-established tourism cities in Europe and North America, while developing destinations remain underrepresented in academic research. This gap is particularly significant for cities undergoing post-conflict or transitional development, where tourism is often viewed as a mechanism for economic recovery and international repositioning. In such contexts, understanding how tourists visually perceive destinations can provide valuable insights for designing effective branding strategies.

Jaffna, located in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka, represents a compelling case for examining the relationship between tourist gaze and city branding. Following the end of the country's civil conflict in 2009, the region has gradually opened to tourism and attracted increasing numbers of domestic and international visitors. The city possesses distinctive cultural, religious, and historical attractions, including Hindu temples, colonial architecture, coastal landscapes, and unique Tamil cultural traditions. However, Jaffna's tourism identity remains in the early stages of development, and the city lacks a clearly defined branding strategy that reflects how tourists actually perceive and experience the destination. Applying the theoretical lens of the tourist gaze may therefore provide useful insights for identifying the visual and experiential elements that shape visitors' perceptions of the city. By examining how tourists gaze upon Jaffna's landscapes, heritage sites, and cultural spaces, this study seeks to explore how these perceptions can inform the development of a coherent city branding strategy.

The findings indicate that multiple forms of tourist gaze operate in Jaffna, including cultural, religious, environmental, and historical gazes. These gaze categories reflect the elements of the destination that attract visitor attention and shape their experiences. By aligning these gaze elements with city branding strategies, it is possible to develop a coherent destination identity that resonates with tourist expectations while maintaining authenticity.

The analysis of stakeholder interviews reveals that tourism in Jaffna is structured around multiple forms of tourist gaze, rather than a single dominant gaze. This aligns with recent research showing that the tourist gaze has evolved into a multidimensional and context-dependent concept, influenced by culture, history, and social dynamics. Stakeholders consistently highlighted Jaffna's Tamil cultural identity, temples, and heritage sites as key attractions. These elements shape a cultural gaze, where tourists seek authenticity and cultural distinctiveness where temples, rituals, and heritage structures act as visual anchors for the tourist experience ( Samarathunga et al., 2021 ).

Comments from all the interviewees support the argument that tourists are drawn to “extraordinary” cultural symbols that differ from everyday life, a core principle of tourist gaze theory. Another strong theme is the importance of islands, lagoons, and coastal landscapes. Peripheral islands and coastal ecosystems around Jaffna attract adventure and nature tourists who contribute heavily to landscape-based gaze, where visual scenery drives tourist motivation. This is consistent with findings that the tourist gaze is often constructed around natural landscapes and symbolic environments. Jaffna's history, particularly its post-war identity, introduces a historical gaze dimension ( Samarathunga et al., 2020 ; Samarathunga, 2020 ). Though some visitors in the past were motivated by curiosity about post-conflict regions, the transition from “dark tourism” to “cultural and environmental gaze” has been well documented in Jaffna in the last decade. This suggests that tourism in Jaffna is evolving, moving away from conflict-based narratives toward cultural and environmental experiences. Stakeholders noted that Jaffna currently attracts mostly backpackers, low-spending domestic tourists, and diaspora visitors. This reflects a low-value economic gaze, where tourists engage with the destination but do not significantly contribute to economic growth. All interviewees strongly emphasized infrastructure issues such as poor road connectivity, long travel time (8 + h from Colombo), limited air and sea transport, and weak island access. Tourist gaze theory highlights that accessibility is essential for enabling the gaze, as tourists must physically reach and observe attractions. Stakeholders pointed out lack of coordinated planning, policy inconsistencies, and limited investor confidence as three main reasons for such infrastructural issues. This reflects a governance gap where branding narratives are not supported by institutional structures. They also acknowledged that local communities are generally welcoming though some cultural resistance exists. This supports the idea of mutual gaze, where both tourists and locals interpret each other's behavior and presence.

The tourist gaze also provides insights into how tourism destinations are socially constructed. Destinations are not simply geographic locations; they are symbolic landscapes shaped by cultural meanings, narratives, and representations. Tourism industries and marketing organizations actively participate in constructing these meanings by emphasizing particular attractions, cultural traditions, and historical narratives. Through promotional campaigns, destinations are transformed into visual spectacles designed to attract visitors. Signposts, guided tours, observation platforms, and photographic viewpoints often guide tourists toward specific perspectives that highlight the most visually appealing aspects of a place. As a result, tourists frequently experience destinations through framed viewpoints that reinforce preexisting representations.

The tourist gaze framework therefore emphasizes the role of tourism professionals in cultivating specific ways of seeing places. Tourism planners, marketers, and destination managers often design experiences that align with tourists' visual expectations, thereby shaping how destinations are perceived and consumed.

This process is closely linked to destination branding strategies. Branding initiatives frequently focus on visual symbols such as iconic landmarks, architectural heritage, natural landscapes, and cultural festivals. By emphasizing these visual elements, cities attempt to create distinctive identities that attract the attention of potential visitors. However, the process of constructing destination images also raises important questions about authenticity and representation. In some cases, tourism development may lead to the commodification of cultural traditions or the simplification of complex local identities in order to meet tourist expectations. Such dynamics highlight the power relationships embedded in tourism encounters, where local communities may adapt their cultural expressions to align with the gaze of visitors.

Branding, marketing, and managing a place brand is extremely difficult because of the complex relationships, dependencies, and involvements among numerous stakeholders in tourism and all other related industries. Stakeholders could be described as inhabitants of the place, investors and related businesses, hoteliers, tour operators, tourists and intermediaries, and policy makers ( Sautter and Leisen, 1999 ). It is particularly important to identify all the stakeholders connected with the place at the very beginning of the branding process. Brand managers have to consider all different community groups of the city dwellers, the city government, suppliers, investors, employers, shareholders of companies attached to the city, employees, and potential visitors to the city. These categories cover most of the people who would be affected by the brand. A summary of the stakeholder feedback is given in the Table 1 . The stakeholders can be separated into two sectors as primary and secondary with the survival of the brand mainly depending on the primary stakeholders ( Clarkson, 1995 ; Donaldson and Preston, 1995 ). It is important to focus on the diversity among the range of the stakeholders from the preliminary investigations of the branding process ( Ferrel et al., 2010 ). Since economic as well as sociocultural growth of the place is the main goal of branding it, the brand managers have to match the wants and needs not only of the consumer but also of all the stakeholders ( Bourne, 2009 ; Mc Alexander et al., 2002 ). If the city management is to change the existing ones or implement new marketing strategies, they have to listen to the concerns, difficulties, expectations, and ideas of the respective stakeholders for the strategy to be an effective one ( Greenley et al., 2005 ). With the exchange of ideas, expertise, power, financial aids and resources, a very solid bond is been created among the stakeholders. It is the mutual understanding among the stakeholders, just as modern day organizations fitting into global alliances for collective benefits in the marketplace by defeating its competitors, that will determine the success of the brand. Such an approach helps the place to offer a diversified array of products and services through its branding and marketing strategies ( Polonsky, 1996 ; Evers et al., 2012 ). Though the strength of the partnership between the brand managers and all other stakeholders is directly proportional to the rate of success of the brand, coordination of such a partnership perhaps would be the most difficult aspect of the whole process ( Hanna and Rowley, 2011 ).

WOM simply is what is been discussed in the marketplace by all the stakeholders ( Askegaard et al., 2010 ). The researchers' findings are also highly considered by customers in a way of a confirmation of what has been advertised by the marketers. WOM is known as a very powerful tool in marketing communication ( Lemon et al., 2004 ). One of the most important characteristics of the WOM the brand managers and marketers have to understand is that they (or the organizations) have a very little control of the WOM. People seek for WOM from friends, relatives, colleagues and other persons that they can trust as a confirmation of what has been heard already ( Arndt, 1967 ).

Negative information spreads faster through WOM than positive information. Digital and Social media has made the WOM increasingly popular and faster. Looking at the positive side of WOM, companies, organizations and destinations can use the same facilities to promote and correct misleading perceptions toward a brand and remind customers of its products and services. When analyzed carefully, it also provides an understanding of the needs and wants of the customers where they share their thoughts and experiences of different brands used ( Li and Bernoff, 2011 ).

Literature explains multiple benefits a country, region or a city could receive by branding a place. The main outcomes expected by a governing body of a branded city are economic development and an expanding tourism industry.

Midwest Airlines in the USA took an initiative in the year 1998, to attract business and talent to the city of Milwaukee and to fill the capacity of its fleet. The focus branding needed, for the city, was wisely captured by the “Sprit of Milwaukee” campaign. The brand manager said,

“ Our biggest barrier was our low self-image and getting Milwaukee to believe in itself. People did not know what we have here in Milwaukee .”

The city of Milwaukee has managed to attract many people due to place branding for business and leisure purposes and considered the achievement as a result of an effort of the whole region ( Malcom, 2004 ).

Prior to 2004, Hamburg, Germany was also doing what most other cities around the world were doing in order to attract investors and businesses and tourists. The city was using different methods to market itself to different groups. City management, with close collaboration with urban planning and policy making integrated the main selling points into one marketing campaign that resulted in almost a 100% increase in overnight guests and the presence of international corporations ( Zenker and Beckmann, 2012 ).

City management of Edmonton, Canada interviewed thousands of people from all walks of life to find out what made them happy, proud, or ashamed to be Edmontonians. After sifting through all the answers, they summarized the key points as Edmontonians being people with ideas, risk-takers capable of creating their own solutions to problems they faced. They also found out that Edmontonians are proud of what they create and therefore the city managers asked them to “Make Something Edmonton.” The expectation was to have perhaps a couple of hundred projects within the 2 years from 2012 to 2014. However, they ended up having more than 1,500 creative projects that can tell the world what Edmonton is all about. The city was awarded the'Best Expression of Place Brand Identity' at the 2016 City Nation Place Forum held in London ( Huang et al., 2016 ).

Izmir is a city with a proud history of being one of the largest port cities in the Mediterranean for over 8,000 years. The port was a transit point on the Silk Road for centuries facilitating trade between Europe and North African countries. The city became a place where Eastern and Western cultures mingle and live in harmony. City managers used its geographical location, history, and demography to empower socio-cultural and economic interactions with other cities around the world. Today, Izmir is marketed as a major logistic hub and a pioneering city connecting Turkey to the global value chain. The city branding process has targeted the talent pool of over 1,50,000 students in the universities within the city itself. The two UNESCO World Heritage sites located within the city are being treated as valuable assets that can attract history enthusiasts from around the world. According to the Mayor of Izmir and the team of experts supporting him, the secret of their success is prioritizing cultural exchanges and people to people contacts. Learning from the history of the city itself the branding team was committed to prioritizing international relations since what made Izmir a prosperous city in the past was its openness to the world. Adjusting to the 21 st century, the city managers focused on making Izmir a smart green city that can compete against any city in the world ( Sonuc, 2020 ).

The tourist gaze is also increasingly influenced by digital media and social networks, where visual representations of destinations circulate globally and shape travel expectations. Tourists often seek to reproduce images they have previously encountered online, reinforcing the connection between visual representation and destination experience.

In parallel, city branding has emerged as a strategic tool for shaping how destinations are perceived. City branding involves constructing and promoting a distinctive identity through narratives, symbols, and visual imagery. Given that tourism is fundamentally a visual and experiential activity, city branding can be understood as a deliberate attempt to shape and direct the tourist gaze.

This study therefore integrates tourist gaze theory with city branding by conceptualising branding as a process of selecting, framing, and promoting the elements of a city that are most likely to attract and sustain the tourist gaze. In this context, Jaffna provides an ideal case for examining how emerging destinations can develop branding strategies based on the visual and symbolic elements that define their tourism identity.

This study set out to examine how tourist gaze theory can inform city branding strategies, using Jaffna, Sri Lanka, as an empirical case. The findings demonstrate that tourism in Jaffna is shaped by multiple and overlapping gazes, including cultural, religious, environmental, and historical gazes. These gazes reflect the distinctive identity of the city and represent the core elements that attract tourist attention and structure their experiences.

The analysis confirms that the tourist gaze is not a static or one-dimensional concept, but rather a dynamic and socially constructed process, influenced by cultural expectations, media representations, and interactions between tourists and local communities. In the case of Jaffna, stakeholders identified key gaze objects such as temples, heritage sites, coastal landscapes, and post-conflict narratives, all of which contribute to the city's tourism appeal.

At the same time, the study highlights a significant gap between potential gaze elements and actual tourism outcomes. Despite possessing rich cultural and environmental resources, Jaffna's tourism development is constrained by issues related to infrastructure, accessibility, governance, and market positioning. These limitations prevent the city from fully translating its tourism assets into a coherent and competitive destination brand.

By integrating tourist gaze theory with city branding, this study contributes to tourism research in two important ways. First, it extends the application of the tourist gaze beyond its traditional focus on tourist experience to include destination branding and planning processes. Second, it demonstrates how identifying and analysing gaze elements can provide a practical framework for developing context-specific branding strategies for emerging destinations.

The findings of this study offer several important implications for tourism planners, policymakers, and destination marketers. City branding strategies should be based on the elements that naturally attract the tourist gaze. In the case of Jaffna, these include, cultural and religious heritage, Tamil identity and traditions, coastal and island landscapes and historical and post-conflict narratives. Tourism planners should prioritize these elements when designing branding campaigns, as they represent the most meaningful and distinctive features of the destination. Research shows that tourism is fundamentally a “way of seeing,” and branding plays a key role in shaping these visual expectations. The presence of multiple gaze types suggests that a single branding message may not be sufficient. Instead, Jaffna should adopt a multi-dimensional branding approach, incorporating, Heritage tourism, Cultural tourism, Environmental and coastal tourism and Historical tourism. This approach allows the city to target different tourist segments and reduce reliance on low-value tourism markets.

The study highlights that infrastructure plays a crucial role in enabling the tourist gaze. Poor accessibility and transport limitations restrict tourists' ability to experience key attractions. Policymakers should prioritize, improving road and rail connectivity, developing Palali airport, enhancing island transport systems and upgrading basic tourism infrastructure. Without these improvements, branding efforts may create expectations that cannot be fulfilled, leading to negative destination perceptions. Tourism development in Jaffna should actively involve local communities. The concept of the mutual gaze suggests that tourism is an interaction between tourists and hosts, rather than a one-way observation process. Policies should therefore, support small and medium enterprises (SMEs), encourage local participation in tourism activities and promote cultural preservation and community engagement. This approach ensures that tourism benefits are distributed more equitably and enhances the authenticity of the destination experience.

The study reveals a lack of coordination among key institutions involved in tourism development. Effective city branding requires a collaborative approach involving government, private sector, and community stakeholders. Hence the recommended actions include, establishing a coordinated tourism development framework, encouraging public–private partnerships (PPPs), and improving policy consistency and investor confidence. Research suggests that governance plays a crucial role in linking tourism development with economic outcomes and destination competitiveness.

Current tourism in Jaffna is Characterized by low-spending visitors. To enhance economic impact, branding strategies should focus on attracting, Cultural tourists, Heritage tourists, experiential and slow-travel segments, and diaspora and niche markets

This shift can increase both tourist expenditure and length of stay, contributing to sustainable tourism growth.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the corresponding author upon request.

The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

SW: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. TH: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. HP: Formal analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. The author(s) declare that the support of the generative AI technology of ChatGPT for language editing and searching for relevant literature.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

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city branding , cultural tourism , destination image , heritage tourism , Jaffna , tourist gaze

Weerawansa SRSDK, Hewage TU and Pathirana HPAS (2026) Branding the city through the tourist gaze: evidence from Jaffna, Sri Lanka . Front. Sustain. Tour. 5:1843926. doi: 10.3389/frsut.2026.1843926

Villy Abraham , Sapir Academic College, Israel

Mehmet Seremet , Yüzüncü Yil University, Türkiye

Nipon Chuamuangphan , University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce, Thailand

© 2026 Weerawansa, Hewage and Pathirana.

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* Correspondence: S.R.S.D.K. Weerawansa, shashi@econ.cmb.ac.lk

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